- Words in question
- Structure of question
- Order or context of the questions
- Problem with survey measurement à respondent (object being measured) must itself be actively engaged in measurement process.
Properties in Words in Questions
- No meaning can be given to a word, apart from cues from its context, by the respondent
- A word can be taken to mean different things by same respondent.
- Word can be taken to mean difference things by different respondents.
- Example
o Variability in meanings over different respondents who chose same answer
§ Pretty often
o Context of question may affect attributed meaning of response category
§ Meaning of word few
· Reading a few poems before lunch
· Writing a few poems before lunch
§ Meaning of word weekday
- Rules
o Respondents interpret interview rules to require them to answer each question, not merely to answer the questions they view as completely unambiguous
o When faced with several possible meanings for a question, respondents will chose one for which an answer is more readily formed.
- Respondents will answer survey questions despite little understanding of the question
- Investigate meaning of different words in questions by
o Split sample comparison
§ Do you think the US should forbid public speeches against democracy?
§ Do you thing the US should allow public speeches against democracy?
Properties of Question Structure
- Length of questions
- Open vs closed questions
- Number and order of response categories in fixed alternative questions
o Eg, number of scale points
o Offering "about average" as an option
o Alter 7 point fully labeled scale question into two questions
- Explicit "Don't Know" response categories
- Question structure in measurement of sensitive topics
o Loading à behaviour is exhibited by many people
o Randomized response technique
- Question structure and recall of past events
o Bounding interview
Properties of Question Order
- Context effects on responses
- Fatigue effect
- Position of question in questionnaire
Conclusions about Measurement Error related to the Questionnaire
- Stability of measurement is enhanced with many indicators of underlying concept.
Estimates of Measurement Error from Multiple Indicator Models
Cost Models Associated With Measurement Error through The Questionnaire
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